Geography of Spain

SPAIN is the larger of the two countries into which the Iberian Peninsula is divided, the other being Portugal. Excluding the Canary Island,, politically a part of Spain but physically African.The mainland territory of the Spanish state stretches from 9degree 18 inches west longitude (Cape Tropicana) to 3degre 19inches east longitude (Cape Cresses), and from 36 degree (Punta Baroque) to 43degree 46 inches north latitude (Punta de la Estacada de vares). Madrid the capital is situated at the geographical center of the country. To the north the chain of the Pyrenees stretches for about 270 miles from the Bay of Biscay to the Mediterranean, and forms the frontier with France, interrupted only, by the tiny independent state of Andorra. To the north and northwest and the rocky coasts of Galicia and the Basque provinces, to the south west the low and sandy shore of the Gulf of Cadiz, and to the southeast and east the Mediterranean coasts.

The frontier with Portugal is the result of historical events, but it also follows natural boundaries for part of its way along the courses of the four great rivers flowing towards the Atlantic, the Mino, the Duero, the Tagus and the Guardian.

PHYSICAL GIOGRAPHY

REGIONAL DIVISIONS

SPAIN CAN READILYE DIVIDED INTO natural geographic gions. First is the meseta, the heart of the country; all the other region are grouped around it. Starting in the northwest and proceeding clockwise, the other regions are: Galicia, the Asturias, the Basque provinces and the Pyrenees in the north, Aragon and Catalonia in the northeast, the Levant and the Balearic Islands in the east, and Andalusia in the south.

The Meseta: The Land

The name meseta central, or simply the meseta, is given to the vast high occupying the central part of am the Iberian prninsula and of Spain. it has an an area of more than 110,000 a square miles, averages about 2000 feet in height. The Central Chain divides the meseta into two almost equal areas. the meseta is also defined on the north, northeast and south by the Cantabrian Mountains, the Iberian Mountains and the Sierra Morena.

Thus the great central nucleus of Spain is clearly divided into four topographical units, the Central Chain, the peripheral sierras and the two basins of New and Old Castile. In spite of this, the meseta is unified by certain common characteristics: a consistent average height above sea level, a prevalence of flat areas, a Continental climate and a very low population density.

The meseta landscape is desolate. There are unending skylines, steep and savage rocks, extremely little vegetation, a harsh and intemperate climate, and dry, clear air.

THE CENTRAL CHAIN

The Central Chain which divides the two Castiles does not break the physical continuity of the meseta as much as the height of its peaks would suggest. From east to west lie the Sierra de Guadarrama (which is connected with the Iberian Mountains and reaches a height of 7972 feet in the Panorama), the Sierra de Gredos (in which the highest point of the whole meseta is reached 8504 feet in the Plaza de Almanzor) and the Sierra de Gata (of which the highest point is the peak of Jalama, 5577 feet).

Plateaus predominate in the Central Chain, and the harsh and rocky massifs and the cold tones and colors give the middle sierras a savage appearance. There are few routes across the chain, and they are difficult ones.

The Monies de Toledo lie in the southern meseta, and separate the valley of the Tagus in the north from the valley of the Guadiana in the south. The Sierra de Guadalupe (15,121 feet in the Villuerca), the Montonchez, and the sierras of San Pedro and San Mamede are ranges of lesser importance that do not rise very high above the plain of Estremadura.

THE CASTILIAN BASINS

The two basins of the meseta extend to north and south of the Central Chain. The limestone plateaus of Old Castile and the Alcarria tableland in the south are the residual strips of more ancient I rocks, the edges of which often descend in cliffs cut through by rivers. The West area of Tierra de Campos in Old castile and the flat plain of La Mancha in New Castile are typical high plains formed by rivers and lakes.

The Campo de Calatrava is a high plain that stretches west of La Mancha between the Montes de Toledo and the Sierra Morena. It is crossed by rounded, low hills and is distinguished from neighboring regions by remnants of ancient volcanic, activity.

THE SIERRA MORENA AND THE IBERIAN MOUNTAINS

The edge of the meseta in the south coincides with the Sierra Morena, which stretches from the Portuguese Algarve to the Sierra de Alcaraz north of Murcia. Its formation is due to late geologic activity and to erosion, which has created deep, narrow valleys. The northern slopes of the sierra descend gently to the meseta. The highest part of the Sierra Morena is the Sierra Madrona, and Banuelo rises to 4340 feet.

The northeastern face of the meseta is formed by the Iberian Mountains, which stretch from the La Bureba tableland near Burgos to the Mediterranean north of Valencia. The Sierra de ]a Demanda rises to 7556 feet, and further south are the Sierra de Urbion (7310 feet) and the Sierra Cebollera (7040 feet).

The Meseta: Climate

The whole of the meseta belongs to "dry Iberia." The internal mass has a markedly Continental climate, with hot summers and harsh winters, a dry atmosphere and little precipitation.

The harshest winter temperatures of the peninsula are to be found on the northern meseta. In 1885, 6'F was registered at Valladolid. Mean temperatures generally vary between 35'F in January and 70'F in July.

The southern meseta has milder winters, but the summers are hotter. Daily change in temperature is marked, and is sometimes more than 30'F at Madrid.

Precipitation is sparse and irregular over the whole of the meseta; the yearly average is only about 14 "Inches. It is lower in the north and in la Mancha in the south, and rises in the peripheral mountainous areas. Precipitation is concentrated mainly in the autumn months, and summer and winter are the driest times almost everywhere. Spring rains are always less than autumn rains.

Winds from the northern hemisphere prevail on the no her meseta especially those from the northeast and northwest. Wind r the southwest prevail on the soouthearn meseta. In spring great areas of e high plain are often covered witmist, and in summer the wind raises whirlwinds of fine dust on the plains of La Mancha. These, together with the calina (heat clouds), sometimes cover the whole region.

The Meseta: River Systems

The northern meseta is drained almost entirely by the Duero, but the waters from the southern meseta flow to the Tagus, the Guadiana, the Jucar and the Segura.

THE DUERO

The basin of the Duero is one of the largest in Spain (a little over 32,000 square miles), and embraces almost the whole of the northern rneseta. The 485 mile long river rises in the Sierra de Urbion, and turns southeastward into a wide valley between the Sierra Cebollera and the Sierra de Cabrejas. Before the ruins of the ancient city of Numantia, where it is met by the Tera River, the Duero turns sharply south, and above Albanian finally turns toward the west.

It receives many tributaries in its middle course, those on the right flowing down from the Iberian and Cantabrian Mountains (Pisuerga, Arlanzon, Esla), and those on the left descending from the Central Chain (Adaja, Tormes). All these rivers flow through fertile country.

Below Zamora and the confluence of the Esla the Duero's course grows steeper, and the river flows rapidly through deep cuts to the Atlantic after entering Portugal.

THE TAGUS

The Tagus (Spanish: Tajo) flows across e southern meseta. It is the longest river in the peninsula (about 625 miles), rises in the Montes Universales, an finds its way to the plain through the narrow gorges of the Iberian highlands. It is fed on the right by tributaries that rise in the Iberian Mountains.

In its winding intermediate course on the meseta it flows slowly and receives the Jarama, Tajuna',, ' Atberche, Tietar and Alagon on the right, and on the left the Algodor, Guadiela, Almonte and Salor.

In ancient times the river flowed in wide meanders over layers of siltwhich covered the the plain. Slow but sure erosion has carried away the more recent layers, and the Tagus has sunk deeper and deeper into therocks of the Montes de Toledo.

THE GUADIANA

The course of the Guadiana (520 miles), the other important river of the southern meseta, is different from that of the other two. Its several headwaters join near Villarrubia in the Ojos del Guadiana (The Eyes of the Guadiana), a swampy zone where sunken waters from a great part of La Mancha come to the surface again.

The Guadiana flows southwestward until turned by the hard volcanic rocks of the Campo de Calatrava toward the northwest. In Estremadura it begins to follow the general inclination of the meseta. Its main tributaries are the Jabalon, Zujar and Chanca, all on the left.

The meseta rivers on the Mediterranean slopes such as the Segura (over 180 miles) and the Jucar (over 300 miles) are torrential, differentiating them from the steppe type rivers flowing to the Atlantic. They reach the sea by way of various steps and the gorges.

The Meseta: Flora and Fauna

The original vegetation of the north are limes, chestnuts meseta is mainly of the steppe, andgrow along the Mediterranean types. Typical characteristicsof steppe flora are the absence of timber and the prevalence of saltbush plants. The principal ones are esparto grass, which covers large areas, mugwood, thyme, lavender, rosemary, numerous kinds of broom and many other medicinal plants. Much of Castile was once covered with forests, but it has been denuded by centuries of lumbering.

The most typical kind of mixed Mediterranean vegetation is the brushwood and scrub known as montebajo (low woods), extending over large areas of the southern meseta,and made up of copse wood and evergreens that sometimes rise to a height of several feet. The fauna of the meseta was once richer than it is now. Because of the severe impoverishment of the forests and increasingly intensive hunting it is no longer very varied. Wild animals such as the fox and the lynx survive on the central highlands, but they are scarce.

The vegetation of the steppes and the scrublands supports many kinds of birds such as ducks, wild geese, woodcock and cranes.

Galicia: Land and Climate

The northwestern extremity of Spain is made up of the plateaus and mountains of Galicia. One of the most ancient regions of Iberia, it consists of archaic rocks, which have been worn down and flattened by erosion over thousands of years.

Erosion, particularly intense because of the high rainfall of the region, has modeled a series of mountain ranges which are not very high and which are separated by a great number of valleys. Because of a recent fall in the level of the land, the ocean has invaded the lower reaches of the coastal valleys, forming deep inlets called rias.

The population is densest along the coasts, where man has taken advantage of the many natural harbors to devote himself to seafaring. But though the interior is mountainous and often inhospitable it supports a fairly large agricultural population.

Under the influence of the sea the climate is generally mild, with moderately hot summers and mild winters. Galicia is exposed to Atlantic winds and has abundant, uniform rain, chiefly on the lower Has and in the interior. Mists are frequent. The maximum annual rainfall for the whole of the Iberian peninsula occurs at Santiago.

RIVER SYSTEMS

The watercourses forming the smaller rias are of little importance. The Tambre, Ulla, Lerez and Oitaben, which have formed deep rias have more water and longer courses.

The largest river of Galicia is the Mino (total length 210 miles). Its principal tributary is the Sil, which, with lesser streams, helps make the Mano navigable on its lower course. The Mano forms the boundary between Spain and Portugal in this area.

FLORA AND FAUNA

The vegetation is made up of central European species in the region north of the Ulla, and south of this river chiefly of Mediterranean and southern species. The mountain slopes are covered with forests of broadleaved tree such as birch, beech, in a ashel and maple. Chestnuts and oaks grow on the lower slopes. The northern limit of 'the olive runs north of Vigo in the 'coastal zone, and inland more to the south.

The fauna of Galicia is rich in subterranean mammals goats and mountain goats; birds of ,prey, such as vultures and eagles, are found 'are on the heights. The Galician especially common. Fish are numerous and find favorable feeding and spawning conditions in the clear and calm inlets of the rias.

The Cantabrian and Basque Regions: The Land

North of the meseta is the system known as the Cantabrian Mountains. Traditionally considered a northwestern extension of the Pyrenean system, it is really older, and was only incidentally affected by the Alpine mountain forming process.

The Cantabrian Mountains are divided into a coastal region made up of terraces, and a high, inland mountain region. A long furrow runs between the two regions.

The chain develops between the Biscayan lowland in the northwest and the La Bureba region in the southeast, and rises into the enormous limestone mass of the Picos de Europa. West of these the mountains leave the sea, although several spurs stretch toward the Atlantic.

The Picos de Europa are one of the most¬intricate blocks in the peninsula,' culminating in the Torre de Cerredo (8687 feet). Large zinc deposits give the Picos de Europa economic importance.

The Basque region occupies the inner part of the Bay of Biscay. It is made up of a vast depression traversed by a series of mountains which have no predominant orientation. A great number of little valleys, some at right angles and some parallel to the coast, makes for a picturesque landscape along the foothills.

The heights are often known as, the Basque Pyrenees and act as a divider between the Atlantic and the Mediterranean basin. The main peaks are the Pico de Gorbea (5043 feet) and several in the Pefia de Amboto and Sierra de Aralar.

The coastal forms are the same along the whole northern littoral of Spain, namely those of a young coast that has sunken in recefit times. The nearness of the mountains to the coast gives the shore a notably steep and harsh outline. Another characteristic of the littoral is the great depths occurring immediately off shore.

CLIMATE

Climatically the Cantabrian and Basque regions have clearly marked Atlantic characteristics. The temperate climate is the same as that of Galicia, with prevailing ocean winds from the northwest, mild winters, warm summers and abundant rain. There is little annual temperature variation. Rainfall everywhere is high, chiefly failing in spring and autumn.

With the watershed close to the sea, the rivers of the Cantabrian region have short, torrential courses. e main rivers of the Santander re and are the Pas, Besaya and Deva, arid in the Asturias the Nalon.

The river system of the Basque region may be divided into two sectors: ose flowing toward the Mediterran an, and those of the Atlantic slope e. The former group includes the To and the tributaries of its upper course, the latter comprising the coastal streams of the Bidasoa, Urumea, Urola, Deva and Nervion.

The latter have eat economic importance as means of producing hydroelectric power. he largest Basque river is the Nervion, rising in the Pefia de Orduna and joined by the Durango and Cadagu At its mouth it forms the ria of Bilbao.

THE PYRANEES THE LAND

The chain of the Pyrenees stretches from Cape Cereus for about 270 miles to the Atlantic. It is a great corrugated chain, similar in structure to the Alps. Like other chains, the Pyrenees possess a clearly distinguishable to axial zone, made up of a mass of very ancient crystalline rocks which rise to the highest points of the chain.

North and south of this central zone are more recent strips also folded over but differing greatly from each other. The French slopes are rather steep and lack longitudinal valleys. The Spanish slopes are gentler, and though cut transversely by almost all the valleys on that side, also have a notable longitudinal furrow.

To the west, the chain descends gradually toward the Atlantic and mingles with the complicated Basque mountains: but the Mediterranean section of the chain remains very high until a short distance from the cost. The line of the mountains remain at a considerably and constant height, which explains why the chain is so difficult to cross.

The crystalline massifs of the axial zone are frowned with high surfaces (at about 600 feet) where signs of glacial action are evi9dent. The zone covered with ice in the Quaternary period comprised almost the whole of the chain and extended southward to heights of about 3000 feet.

Today only the highest massifs and some shaded areas have perennial snow, the first snowfields beginning at 8000 to 9000 feet, the real glaciers being higher than 9000 feet. They are gradually wasting away, and are distributed about the Picos Moros, Vignemale, and Monto per dido, Nubile and the Maladetta.

CLIMATE

Spanish slopes of the Pyrenees have the climate characteristics of the mesete, with the noticeable modifications due to Atlantic and Mediterranean influences on the western and eastern ends of the chain respectively. This Continental climate makes their Aragonite slope hotter in summer than the slopes of the same height on the French side. It also has an earlier spring and a greater range of temperatures. Winter is long and harsh in the valleys of the Pyrenees.

Generally the mean annual rainfall exceeds eighteen inches. This occurs regularly only in the Atlantic sector, where rainfall can exceed sixty inches a year, mostly falling in autumn. In the eastern sector, however, most rainfalls in summer.

The ce4nmtral section is exceptional because the Aragon’s slopes form a dry zone. The mean annul precipitation remains somewhat below twenty inches, and the aridity of the soil is well from the poverty of the vegetation.

RIVER SYSTEM

The rivers on the southern slopes of the Pyrenees flow toward the Ebrotrench, except those of the extreme eastern sector (Muga, Flu via, Ter and Liobregat), which do directly the Mediterranean, and those of the extreme western sector (Bidasoa and lesser streams), which flow into the Atlantic.

The watercourses in the central section are longer than those of the eastern and western sections. The rivers of the central section are fed by the perennial snows on the heights and the glacial lakes; they have a regular flow and therefore useful for hydroelectric works.

The main Spanish Pyrenean riverse, from west to east, the Aragon Gallego, Cinca and Segre. FLORA AND FAUNA

Such climate differences and inequality in precipitation are reflected in the floor of the Pyrenees. Also the complex geological composition of the soil limits the distributions of the various species, Some Mediterranean and Atlantic types have adapted themselves to alpine conditions. Certain species appear in isolated stands on both slopes on the Spanish side clumps are particularly frequent.

The aridity of the climate has created deprived vegetation areas such as the garrigues in the Aragon’s Pyrenean region, and thin pastures grazed by nomadic flocks. More noticeable toward the east are other disproved Mediterranean spices, together with mountainsides covered with box, evergreen oaks and wild prices.

Until a few years centuries ago the original mountain fauna as the bear, the izard (Pyrenean chamois) and the mountain goat existed in great numbers but have now been driven back by man to the most inaccessible areas, and the becoming extent. The main reasons for the disc appearance of the typical fauna of the region are deforestation new methods of cultivating forests, and hunting. The same may be said of the wolf, fox, wild goat, and birds of prey, all of which are becoming less numerous.

THE EBRO VALLEY AND THE CATALAN REGION: THE LAND

The great Ebro depression lies between the Iberian Mountains and the southern sloes of the Pyrenees. To the southeast it is bordered by the Catalan coastal chains. The Aragon’s trench was formerly occupied by sea water coming from the Gulf of Rosas, and when the Catalan system rose, it was transformed into a lake, slit from which filled the depression. In the period when the Pyrenees took on their present shape the trench became more marked, and the system of terraces that now gradually descend toward the course of the Ebro came being on both sides of the basin.

The northwestern sector of the Ebro depression is made up of the Ribera and the Bardenas, prevalently flat plateaus. The central section is divided into two depressions separated by the Sierra de Alcubierre, and comprises the valley of the Ebro proper and the Huesca trench, through which flows the Alcanadre.

South of the sierra is a vast platform through shich the Ebro flows with many curves. This landscape is one of the most desolate in Spain.

The Catalan coastal chains are separated from the Pyrenees by the Ampurdan plain. The inner Catalan chain begins with the mass of the Sierra de Montesano, and continues to the southwest in the sierra de Montserrat.

The coast of Catalonia parallels the chains front eh Ebro delta to the French frontier. The harsh and rocky coasts are the external flanks of the coastal mountains; especially the picturesque coasts de Garraf in the southwest and the famous Costa Brava in the northeast. The latter is a recently sunken zone, whose winding and broken coastline with deep bays, rocks and reefs is a great attraction to tourist.

CLIMATE

The Ebro depression is excluded from the beneficent influence of the Mediterranean because of the Catalan coastal barrier, and is affected by continental climate conditions.

The temperature range is extreme, and resembles that OLD and New Castile. North and north easterly winds prevail, and are often very violent. Perception is very sparse in the lower region, increasing a little toward the Pyrenees.

The Catalan coastal region, however, has a climate of the Mediterranean type with mild, short winters and dry summers. Winds from the south west prevail on the coast, north easterlies in the valley of the Liobregat. Rain falls mainly in the spring and autumn, and in winter there is more rain than elsewhere in the northeast.

THE EBRO RIVER

The Ebro forms the central artery of Aragon, and is the longest Iberian river in Spain after the Tagus, in length (about 575 miles) and extent of its basin (32,000 square miles). It rises at the Pena Labara and flows down the basin through rugged territory made up of the sierras of Navarre and the most fertile areas of the Rioja.

As it passes over the plain of Aragon it irrigates strips along its banks, and in its lower to form a wide delta. Marked variations in volume are due to the dryness of the climate and the consequent intense evaporation, and to water being drawn off the irrigation.

During the thawing of the snows the volume of water brought to the Ebro by its tributaries on the left (Aragon, Arab, Gall ego, Segre) is considerable. The tributaries on the right, the main once being the Jalon, Huerva, Martin, Guadalupe and Marattana, irrigate the country thorough which they pass.

As the mountain chain is near the sea, the Catalan rivers flow steeply down with numerous falls, to the sea. These rivers have a fairly regular flow, and receive water from the Pyrenees (Muga, Flu via). Further south de Cadi, supplies energy too many factories along its course, and enters the sea through delta just south of Barcelona.

FLORA AND FAUNA

The natural vegetation is of the steppe type, with associated plants of the Mediterranean scrublands. Typical specimens are the madwort, thyme and lavender, together with saltbushes esparto and desert plants. Trees of full growth are found only along the rivers.

The flora changes radically in Catalonia, where Mediterranean vegetation generally prevails. Various kinds of oaks and cork oaks stand upon the slopes of the eastern Pyrenees; the latter, further south, being of great economic importance. Marti time pines grow on the Costa Brava, together with eucalyptus and cypress, and the climate also favors fruit-growing.

The fauna of the valley of the Ebro is also of the steppe type, no is scanty. In Catalonia wild animals are more numerous in the mountain areas (polecats, wildcats, and wolves). There are also many rabbits and hares and as Catalonia is situated on an important migration route, many birds of passage may be found there in season. In the hotter areas reptiles are common.

THE LEVNT: THELAND

The Levant region faces the Mediterranean, and stretches from the delta of the Ebro to Cape Palos. Its clear, sun-drenched landscapes and subtropical vegetation presage Andalusia further south, and Africa. The narrow coastal strip has alternating tracts of silt plains and high rocky coasts, and rims the Gulf of Valencia and the Bay of Alicante.

The mountainous interior is made up a series of limestone sierras of moderate height, and high plains of alluvial origin. These are the meseta to the north and the Basic Cordillera in the region of Murcia, which have a harsh and forbidding appearance and are cut into by deep isolated valleys. These eastern extensions of the Baetic system divide Castile clearly from the Levant but leave easy means of communication between the Levant an Andalusia.

Where it is not irrigated the landscape is extremely dry, but there are broad, flat fertile areas about the river mouths. The biggest of these plains is that of Valencia, which stretches inland for about seventy miles in the valley of the Turia.

CLIMATE AND RIVER SYSTEMS

The climate of the Levant has marked subtropical characteristics hot winds from Africa (including the Solano) cause great dryness and lack of precipitation. Rain is mainly confined to autumn and early winter. Differences in day and night temperatures are marked, especially in winter. Aridity increases towards the southwest, where some of the lowest rainfall readings in Spain are recorded.

The principal rivers rise in the Iberian Mountains and on the meseta Streams originating in the Baetic Cordillera and the intermediate sierras between it and the meseta are found only in the southwest. All these rivers are torrential the main ones being the Turia, Jucvar and Segura.

FLORA AND FAUNA

The flora of the Levant region is typically Mediterranean, with additional African influences due to the dryness of the climate. African landscapes are found near steppe and scrub areas, and palms, olives, fruit trees and vineyards prevail. The fauna includes species that are also found in Catalonia, but in the southern zone there is also the meloncillo, a wild cat peculiar to southern Spain. The coastal lagoons are rich in fish, and typical Mediterranean fish are found off the coast.

THE BALEARIC ISLANDS

The Balearic archipelago lies in the clear waters of the western Mediterranean, off the Levant and Catalan coasts. Topographically and historically it has strong links with Spain. These are two groups of islands the Balearics proper (Majorca and Minorca) and Las Piteous (Ibiza and fomenter). The archipelago has an area of 1936 square miles and is a continuation of the Baetic Cordillera.

MAJORCA

Majorca (Spanish: Mall orca) is the largest island and also the most important economically. It has a complicated topography, the highest part lying in the northwestern part of the islands, where the mountains rise to 4741 feet in the Pulg Mayor, or Terrell’s. On the south eastern coast the limestone ridge does not exceed 1670 feet. The two sierras are separated by an intermediate plains area, which runs between the bays of Palma and lcudia and which is transverse an duct into by irregular and impetuous torrents. The costs are generally steep and rocky and their bays and rare stretches of sand make them particularly beautiful.

The climate is mild at every season, attracting many visitors. Rain is rather source. The vegetation is dominated by low scrub, pine and oak woods.

MINORCA

Minorca (Spanish: Men orca) is the most easterly of the Balearics. It is made up a limestone tableland covered with poor vegetation, with some low hills (EI tutors, 1175 feet). Geologically and topographically it is very different from the other islands in the group. Its coastline is broken, and the northern coast, which is steep and harsh, has deep valleys. The southern shore has a few small beaches. Its climate is not as mild as that of the other islands, as it is subject to strong winds from the northeast.

LAS PITIUSAS

Las Piteous is a group of islands made up of the islands of Ibiza and Fomenters, together with several lesser islets. The topography of Ibiza is marked by the presence of many peaks of medium height and dry and stony soil. This rough landscape has a hotter and drier climate than Majorca, because the island is further south. Olives and grapes prosper on the cultivated soil, and the vast slopes are covered with pines.

The island of Fomenter has a simpler topography. The central and western regions are flat, but the eastern part is made up of a precipitous mountain overlooking the sea, and joined to the rest of the island by a spit of land. The fertile soil and rich seas (tunny and lobsters) provide the island’s main economic resources.

Andalusian Plain and the Baetic Cordillera: The Land

The southern section of Spain comprises the region of Andalusia. Physically it is made up of rather diverse natural regions, the valley of the Guadalquivir River and the mighty Alpine massif of the Baetic Cordillera. Another topographical unit is the Sierra Morena scarp, which forms the southern edge of the meseta.

The Guadalquivir valley, which is a great sunken trench, forms the center of the vast Andalusian plain, which the river slowly transverses. It brings life and fertility to a region which otherwise would be desert and steppe because of the dryness of the climate. The river waters great areas of ancient sedimentary terrains, and the most populous settlements are situated along or near the river's banks.

The pale green of the olives, the luxuriant green of the vegetable crops and the golden or reddish soil of the irrigated vegas are in striking contrast to the naked sierras that border them. Toward the lower course of the Guadalquivir they are succeeded by the marshy marismas and the sandy coasts of the arenas gordas (wide sands). ,South of the plain the massive Baetic Cordillera rises to form a rough southeastern frame for the peninsula. In both origin and structure the chain is like the Pyrenees and like the Pyrenees has an axial zone. This zone dominates the Mediterranean coast and contains the highest peaks of the system and of all Spain, the Sierra Nevada.

North of this zone there is an area of more recent rocks, the sub Baetic chain, stretching between the axial zone and the Guadalquivir valley. The two units are separated by a longitudinal furrow, which extends from the lower course of the Segura toward the east as far as the valley of the Genil.

HIGHEST PEAKS OF THE CHAIN

The highest peaks of the Baetic Cordillera are in the Sierra Nevada, where a height of 11,411 feet is reached in the Mulhacen, highest in Spain.

The internal longitudinal furrow and the narrow southern coastal fringe contain the principal cities of the region and almost all the means of communication, although the chain is crossed by the Motril Granada road and the Almeria Guadix railroad.

The southern Mediterranean coast, Costa del Sol, is of special interest. It is generally steep and rugged, except at the river mouths, where Malaga, Motril and Almeria stand. The coastal area is protected on the north by the mountains. This together with the many streams, has caused the population density to be higher than the average for Spain. But commerce from the ports is limited by the absence of a hinterland.

An and steppe zone stretches to the east of the Sierra Nevada, and the Baetic reliefs become lower. The coast turns to the northeast and is fully exposed to dry African winds. Andalusia is thus a land of marked contrasts, and only its history and 14c character of its people have given it its unified nature.

CLIMATE

Southern Spain has a subtropical climate, with mild winters and summers that are often very hot. Rain is generally scarce. The topographical variations do, however, result in climatic variations, notable from zone to zone.

On the coastal section winters are usually warmer, and summers usually fresher, than inland. Variations in temperature are more marked in the inland areas: winter is harsher, and summer is very hot. The highlands of the Bactic Cordillera have individual characteristics, and the height and the different exposures of the slopes are factors that influence the climatic conditions.

Southern Spain belongs to "dry Spain," as annual rainfall is never high, the steep coast of Almeria recording some of the lowest figures in all of Europe. Precipitation is also very slight in the southwestern section, but increases toward the interior where air masses from the Atlantic are forced upward, causing relatively more frequent rainfall. The Sierre Nevada and the mountainous section between Malaga and Cadiz have much precipitation and frequent snowfalls.

RIVER SYSTEMS

Most of the water in Andalusia flows to the Guadalquivir, which runs through the center of the plain. Some short torrential streams flow directly to the Mediterranean.

About 375 miles long, the Guadalquivir rises at 4500 feet in the Sierra de Cazorla. It flows between the Bactic ridges in its upper course, and makes its way through variegated hill country toward the Andalusian plain, where it is met by the Guadalimar. At the center of the plain, at Cordoba, it is at about 320 feet above sea level, but at Seville (sixty five miles from the sea) it is less than thirty five feet above sea level. Its basin does not widen until below Seville, where the river flows down a slight declivity. Here it is affected by tides, which helps river navigation.

Near the mouth there are great marshy areas (marismas) on either side of the river, which flows very slowly until it makes its way into the sea through the arenas gordas (dunes). The Guadalquivir's main tributaries are the Guadalimar, Guadiana Menor, Jandula, Guadiato, Guadajoz, Bembezar, Viar, Genii and Huelva, which flow down from the Sierra Morena and the Baetic Cordillera. The river's flow remains constant even in summer, because the snow on the inner slopes of the Sierra Nevada thaws late.

The swift streams on the southern slopes of the Bactic Cordillera flow through picturesque countryside to the Mediterranean. There are small, easily cultivated alluvial plains (vegas) at their mouths.

FLORA AND FAUNA

The flora of southern Spain varies greatly from place to place because of the intense heat (almost tropical inland), the differences in precipitation and the great height of the Sierra Nevada. Mediterranean scrubland prevails along the coastal strips and in lower Andalusia, and there is much steppe land in the higher eastern areas. The flora of the Baetic Cordillera is more varied, and different kinds of vegetation are found at different heights. The dominating tree is the olive. Chestnut, oak and pine occur, but there is a prevalence of shrub growth.

In some of the higher sierras there is found a rare species of pine, the pinsapo, which is believed to be a remnant of the ancient Quaternary forest of the area.

The fauna is not unlike that of the southern parts of the Levant. Typical Mediterranean species are found, as well as some North African types, such as the meloncillo, already mentioned.